His mother’s dress: growth in the number of clothes

Ingun Grimstad Klepp and Kirsi Laitala.

Introduction

Eivind Stø likes a tell an illustrative story about his mother who went through World War II with only one dress due to rationing. Today women have many dresses; more than we can wear out in 5 years. Since 1990, Norway’s clothing imports have almost doubled (Statistics Norway, 2014) and we did not lack clothing in 1990. This chapter discusses what we know about this change. What do we know about the number of clothes in use? When did they multiply to such an extent? What sources and methods do we have to describe this growth? In general, growth should be a more central theme in the environmental debate, especially when it comes to clothing and other items where growth in numbers is completely decoupled from a corresponding increase in satisfaction. As long as we produce (and purchase) far more clothes than we need, quantity should be an essential theme.

Lifecycle thinking has little relevance when the cycle ignores use. To put it another way, without knowing anything about the amount we can hardly reach a future where production matches our need to be warm and beautiful. Nevertheless, there are a few relevant studies of this growth. We will use previous investigations of clothing consumption in Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, as well as material from SIFO’s projects on clothing consumption, where we have attempted to approach an understanding of the number of clothes that people possess.

This article is from the book in The Consumer in Society – A Tribute to Eivind Stø, edited by P. Strandbakken and J. Gronow.

Patched, Louse-ridden, Tattered: Clean and Dirty Clothes

Ingun Grimstad Klepp

Abstract

“Patched, louse-ridden, tattered—clean, beautiful, gem.” As children we recited this rhyme in Norwegian: “Lappete, lusete, fillete—ren, pen, edelsten,” as we picked petal after petal from a daisy. All the words can be understood as descriptions of the child’s future clothes. Clean is the turning point in the rhyme. Clean is thus seen as the first step on the way towards the gem, and it conveys here the same meaning as in the saying “whole and clean is the greatest finery.” Both emphasize clean clothes as crucial to the judgment of a person’s appearance. In the world of fashion it has been alleged that “anything goes.” This is probably true if we restrict “anything” to small variations in the look, decor, color, and style of clothes. However, our way of dressing also depends on more absolute norms.

This article explores the norms that deal with the relationship between clean and dirty clothes. Despite the fact that there is abundant research on cleanliness and laundering on the one hand, and clothes and clothes habits on the other, there are few points of intersection between the two fields. The article is an attempt at seeing these two themes in conjunction. It investigates how clothes, by being kept clean, make bodies socially acceptable. The article looks at how the demand for cleanliness varies in relation to age, gender, and class, and compares these demands to what we know about decency.

Click here to read the full article (tandfonline.com)

A methodological approach to the materiality of clothing: Wardrobe studies

Ingun Grimstad Klepp and Mari Bjerck

Abstract

The material is not just ‘a carrier of different types of symbols, but an active element in the practices. Bringing this to the fore requires new research methods. This article discusses a methodological approach, we call it a wardrobe study, which allows for the analysis of the way in which clothes relate to each other on the whole or within parts of the wardrobe. More specifically, we discuss how this method can contribute to increasing the materiality of clothes studies. The theoretical point of departure for this approach is a practice theory in which the material enters as an integral part. First, the article briefly discusses developments within the study of dress and fashion. Second, the methods combined and developed in wardrobe studies are discussed. The emphasis here is primarily not only on the weaknesses of the individual methods in practice-oriented dress studies, but also on how they jointly can contribute to the wardrobe study.

Click here to read the full article (tandfonline.com).

Wool is a knitted fabric that itches, isn’t it?

Marie Hebrok and Ingun Grimstad Klepp

Abstract

In this article, we explore in what ways consumers’ preconceptions of wool influence their ability to recognize it as a fabric. Do we know that it is wool because it itches, or, conversely, does it itch because we think that it is wool? The analysis builds on three different methods; wardrobe studies, sample tests and interviews, in order to explore both informants’ visual senses, and also applied tactile senses. It aims to bring together social science and textile technology methodologies and understanding in order to understand the properties of wool. It does this through adopting a multisensory understanding of the material. The research aimed to explore the associations with and experiences of wearing wool. This, we argue is as important as the senses in the process of identifying woollen fibres. The research found that the strongest influences in fabric identification were: perceptions of use, fabric type and fibres, colour, structure patterns and the ‘feel’ of the fabric.

Click here to access the article (ingentaconnect.com).

Forbrukstrender 2014

Red.: Randi Lavik og Elling Borgeraas

Sammendrag

SIFO samler årlig inn store mengde data om ulike sider ved forbruket og forbrukernes situasjon i markedet. Målsettingen er å fremskaffe kunnskap om forbrukerne og hvordan forbrukermarkedene fungerer sett fra forbrukernes side. En stor del av datamaterialet er knyttet til områder der SIFO ønsker å følge utviklingen over tid. I denne rapporten har vi samlet opplysninger om forbrukstrender fra ulike SIFO-surveyer presentert av ulike forskere ved SIFO. Temaene er kroppsrelatert matforbruk og helse, forbrukernes forhold til reklame, holdninger til søndagsåpne butikker, mobilitet i tjenestemarkedet, arv og deling av klær, sko og sportsutstyr, miljø og forbruk, den økonomiske situasjonen for norske husholdninger og deres betalingsproblemer, mobil betaling.

Klikk her for å lese hele rapporten (oda.oslomet.no).

Consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour – a synthesis of research results

Kirsi Laitala

Abstract

Consumer decisions on clothing disposal are important from an environmental point of view, as they have an effect on the lifespan of clothing, as well as the potential for reuse and recycling. This article summarizes what is known about consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour based on empirical literature published during the past 30 years. The goal of this synthesis is to integrate empirical research, find generalizable results, evaluate the used research methods and identify central issues for future research. Most clothing disposal studies concentrate on disposal channels, behavioural motivations, disposal reasons and demographics of consumers that behave in specified ways.

Many consumers prefer to deliver clothing for reuse rather than to dispose of them, but convenience is paramount. Common disposal reasons for apparel were wear and tear, poor fit and fashion or boredom, in addition to lack of storage space. Survey methods are most common, which indicates the need of other research designs that preferably include the clothing items in method triangulation. Studied samples are dominated by young women and students, and research on more heterogeneous samples is needed.

Click here to read the full article (wiley.com)

Consumption Studies: The force of the ordinary

Ingun Grimstad Klepp and Kirsi Laitala

Abstract

Consumer research deals with the acquisition, use and disposal of goods and services. Our workplace, SIFO, the National Institute for Consumer Research in Norway, dates back to the 1930s, when home economics and testing of products were predominant. The work aimed at guiding consumers, at that time called housewives, through the ‘jungle’ of novel consumer goods. More recently, SIFO’s work combines social science and textile technology to study the social and technical aspects of consumption.

In this chapter, we ask: how can knowledge of clothing consumption contribute to the work on sustainable fashion? We will answer the question through examples from interdisciplinary projects on textiles at SIFO, as well as from consumer research. However, we will not give an overview of consumer research on clothes and sustainability. But first, an admission: fashion – the topic of this book – operates according to a different logic from our field of work. We would have posed the question differently: how can consumer research – and all the other fields of expertise covered in this book –contribute to more sustainable patterns of clothes production and consumption? Therefore, we also have to include a discussion of the concept of fashion.

This article is Chapter 12 in the book Routledge Handbook of Sustainability and Fashion, edited by Kate Fletcher and Mathilda Tham that you can find here (tandfonline.com).

Made to fit: Å kle en avvikende kropp- handikap og klær

Mari Bjerck, Ingun Grimstad Klepp og Eli Skoland

Sammendrag

Klær er helt sentralt for menneskers deltakelse i samfunnslivet og for selvfølelse og selvrespekt. Hvor vanskelig det er å kle kroppen avhenger både av den anledningen vi kler oss for og den kroppen som skal kles. I denne rapporten retter vi søkelyset mot klær tilpasset handikappede. Å ha et handikap kan innebære sosiale barrierer og fysiske begrensninger som gjør det vanskelig å finne klær i et marked som i hovedsak tilbyr masseprodusert konfeksjon. For å kartlegge problemet har vi foretatt en litteraturstudie, en brukerundersøkelse og en markedsundersøkelse. Dette er gjort for å finne ut 1) hvilken kunnskap som eksisterer på feltet, 2) hvordan handikappede selv opplever utfordringen med å kle en avvikende kropp og 3) i hvilken grad det finnes et marked for handikapklær og/eller hvorvidt et slikt marked har potensiale som forretningsområde for Fjellrypa.

Rapporten finner at klær er både teknisk og sosialt kompliserte og at i forhold til å kle mennesker med avvikende kropper så blir forholdet mellom de sosiale og tekniske utfordringene konfliktfylte. Brukerundersøkelsen som presenteres i rapporten identifiserer manglende tilpasning av konfeksjonsklær og spesialtilpasset tøy til handikappede. I de daglige valgene som ble tatt vedrørende bekledning oppsto det ofte et dilemma mellom å velge å kle seg pent, varmt, tørt eller å unngå slitasje, i tillegg hadde de aller fleste utfordringer som dreide seg rundt åpne- og lukkemekanismer, og av-og påkledning. Bekledning ble også brukt som strategi for å motivere til bruk av bestemte hjelpemidler eller også som en måte å skjule eller vise handikap. Dette er omtalt både i brukerundersøkelsen og i litteraturstudien. Videre pekte de to kvinnene som sto for innkjøpene av klær i brukerundersøkelsen på en endringsprosess hvor det var viktig å tenke funksjonelt, estetisk og teknisk – samtidig.

Det å kle kroppen estetisk slik at handikappet blir minst mulig synlig vil være viktigere i noen situasjoner, mens det i andre er viktigere med funksjonelle klær enten dette innebærer muligheten for å kle seg selv, eller den måten klærne fungerer i bruk. Dette viser til en viktig ambivalens i bekledningen av handikappede, som blir tydelig både i litteraturstudien og brukerstudien. Flere av de handikappede i studien rapporterte om problemer med å orientere seg i et marked som var så å si ikke-eksisterende og i stor grad preget av få eller uklare støtteordninger, lite eksplisitt og ordnet kunnskapsoverføring, samt få aktører.

Markedsundersøkelsen viser på samme måte til manglende rammebetingelser for handikappedes bekledning, tilgang på hjelpemidler og støtte til ekstrautgifter i forbindelse med klær og utstyr. Den peker også på få etableringer og liten motivasjon for å posisjonere seg innenfor utviklingen av spesialsydd tøy for handikappede. Brukerne på sin side identifiserer stort behov for spesialtilpassede produkter. Å finne gode klær for avvikende kropper kan være en stor utfordring både med hensyn til økonomiske ressurser og evnen til å sette seg inn i de muligheter som eksisterer. Det kan derfor tenkes at det er stor variasjon i hvordan de ulike individene løser bekledning i forhold til sitt handikap. Dette gjelder som sagt ikke bare teknisk-funksjonelle bekledning, men også de sosiokulturelle faktorene som bekledning i forhold til anledning. Slik sett eksisterer det et Made to fit uutnyttet potensial i klær for handikappede, samtidig er det også et behov for mer utførlig forskning og politisk initiativer på feltet.

Har du behov for å lese hele denne rapporten, ta gjerne kontakt med oss.

The Rationalisation of Consumption Reasons for Purchasing Outdoor Recreational Outfits

Ingun Grimstad Klepp and Silje Elisabeth Skuland

Abstract

In Norway, there is a broad consensus that experiencing nature and performing physical activities outdoors is healthy, important and typical Norwegian. The Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen’s expression ‘simple outdoor life’ is a great national symbol. In recent years we have seen a rapid technological development of outdoor recreational outfits and a massive increase of the quantity of different clothing and equipment for these activities on the market. This is due to both a specialisation of clothing for different activities and a fast turn over of these kinds of products.

In this paper we will discuss what the drivers for objectification of outdoor leisure are, as seen from the consumers’ point of view. In addressing this question, focus was on how the ‘standard-package,’ that is what is considered as ordinary and necessary, has changed and what consumers tell us about their motivations for buying new equipment and how they explain the necessity and need for new equipment. Technological innovations within clothing and fabric for optimal performance in skiing, running and biking are welcomed by many people, especially high income families. However, this development consists of a dilemma because the consumption growth takes place within activities regarded as simple and in a contrast to modern excess consumption and environmental strains.

Our study shows that outfits for outdoors activities are integrated as part of the skills and knowledge to perform and participate in the activities, and that few reactions to the consumption growth arise because the consumption contributes to activities seen as healthy and valuable. Functional clothes and equipment makes the activities safer and funnier, and therefore motivates increased participation. To be outdoors in the nature and do physical activities is something many Norwegians desire to do more often.

Click here to read the full article here (brill.com).

Valuing Norwegian Wool

Marie Hebrok, Ingun Grimstad Klepp, Tone S. Tobiasson, Kirsi Laitala, Marit Vestvik & Madeline Buck

Summary

Wool has been called the white gold and has warmed and brought joy to the Norwegian population throughout history. It is also a textile fibre with many unused features. The starting point of the project Valuing Norwegian Wool is a desire to help Norwegian agriculture, wool based industry, and design to exploit the potential inherent in Norwegian wool as raw material, and in the Norwegian textile tradition. Norway has a thriving textile industry and several strong companies that produce products made of wool. The marketing of the origin of the raw material these products are produced from is however rather inadequate and sometimes misleading. While fewer and fewer of the products are made of Norwegian wool, consumers – not without reason – take it for granted that Norwegian producers use Norwegian wool.

The project is funded by the Norwegian Research Council and led by SIFO. The project partners include representatives from the entire value chain – from agricultural organizations, industry and commerce, and design and consumption. This report is one of many publications in the project and makes visible the challenges that exist in the value chain, but also the great potential that is there.

Click here to read the full report (oda.oslomet.no)